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Ten Juneteenth Myths
Article by Joshua J. Mark

Ten Juneteenth Myths

The celebration of Juneteenth – originally known as "Freedom Day" – began on 1 January 1866 in Texas and, since then, a number of myths have grown up around the event it commemorates: the issuance of General Order No. 3 in Galveston Texas...
Antipater (Macedonian General)
Definition by Donald L. Wasson

Antipater (Macedonian General)

Antipater (c. 399-319 BCE) was a Macedonian statesman and loyal lieutenant of both Alexander the Great and his father Philip II of Macedon. As a regent in Alexander's absence, Antipater subdued rebellions and mollified uprisings, proving...
Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga
Image by Architect of the Capitol

Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga

British General John Burgoyne surrenders his entire army to American General Horatio Gates on 19 October 1777 at the end of the Saratoga Campaign. Depicted figures include General Burgoyne (left) who offers his sword to Horatio Gates (center...
Jacques Necker
Definition by Harrison W. Mark

Jacques Necker

Jacques Necker (l. 1732-1804) was a Swiss banker and statesman who served as finance minister to King Louis XVI of France (r. 1774-1792). He served in the king's ministry three separate times, tasked with navigating France through its dire...
Estates-General of 1789
Definition by Harrison W. Mark

Estates-General of 1789

The Estates-General of 1789 was a meeting of the three estates of pre-revolutionary France: clergy, nobility, and commons. Summoned by King Louis XVI of France (r. 1774-1792) to deal with financial and societal crises, it ended with the Third...
History of Juneteenth
Article by Joshua J. Mark

History of Juneteenth

Juneteenth is an annual event celebrating the end of chattel slavery in the United States in commemorating the issuance of General Order No. 3 (which included the line "all slaves are free") in Galveston, Texas on 19 June 1865. In 2021, Juneteenth...
The Three Estates of Pre-Revolutionary France
Article by Harrison W. Mark

The Three Estates of Pre-Revolutionary France

Society in the Kingdom of France in the period of the Ancien Regime was broken up into three separate estates, or social classes: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. These classes and their accompanying power dynamics, originating...
Pausanias (General)
Definition by Mark Cartwright

Pausanias (General)

Pausanias (c. 510 - c. 465 BCE) was a Spartan regent and general who won glory by leading a combined Greek force to victory over the Persians at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. Famously immodest regarding his own talent, he was beset by...
Fort Laramie Treaty 1868
Image by U.S. National Archives and Records Administration

Fort Laramie Treaty 1868

General William T. Sherman and Commissioners in Council with Sioux Chiefs at Fort Laramie, Wyoming, signing the Fort Laramie Treaty, 1868, ending Red Cloud's War. Native Americans are seated on the ground, commissioners on chairs. Seated...
Conway Cabal
Definition by Harrison W. Mark

Conway Cabal

The Conway Cabal was a movement undertaken by American military officers and political leaders to remove General George Washington from command of the Continental Army during the winter of 1777-78. These Patriot leaders had lost confidence...
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